Level 10 : Clauses
What is a Clause?
Definition: A clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a predicate. Every complete sentence is made up of at least one clause.

EXAMPLE
Michael bought a new computer. (One sentence, one clause)
Michael bought a new computer, but he still has the old one. (One sentence, two clauses)
Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer. (One sentence, two clauses)

Independent Clause
Definition: An independent clause (or main clause) makes sense by itself. It expresses a complete thought.

EXAMPLE
Michael bought a new computer. (One independent clause)
Michael bought a new computer, but he still has the old one. [Two independent clauses (Coordinating conjunctions don't count as part of the clause.)]
Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer. (Only the second clause is independent.)

Dependent Clause
Definition: A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) does not make sense by itself. It does not express a complete thought.

EXAMPLE
Although he still has his old one. (Without the independent clause, a dependent clause is a sentence fragment.)

A dependent clause usually begins with a subordinating conjunction, a relative pronoun, or some other word that causes it to become dependent. A dependent clause will make sense only when attached to an independent clause.

EXAMPLE
Although he still has his old one. (Although is a subordinating conjunction.) He still has his old one.  (Without the conjunction, the clause becomes independent.)
Michael now has a new computer although he still has his old one.  (Combined with an independent clause, the dependent clause makes sense.)

Dependent clauses can come after, before, or in the middle of the independent clause.

EXAMPLE
Michael now has a new computer although he still has his old one. (Dependent clause after an independent clause)
Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer. (Dependent clause before the independent clause)
Michael, although he still has his old one, now has a new computer. (Dependent clause inside the independent clause)

Adjective Clauses
Definition: An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. It tells which one or what kind. Adjective clauses almost always come right after the nouns they modify.

EXAMPLE
There is the mountain that we are going to climb.
My blue tennis shoes, which used to be my mom's, were under the bed.
Daniel, who was late again today, sits next to me in English.

Using dependent clauses is a way of combining sentences.

EXAMPLE
Daniel was late again today + Daniel sits next to me in English =	Daniel, who was late again today, sits next to me in English.

With relative pronouns
An adjective clause generally begins with a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, whose) that connects the clause to the noun or pronoun it modifies. The relative pronoun shows the relationship between the clause and the antecedent.

EXAMPLE
There is the mountain that we are going to climb. (Antecedent = mountain. That connects the clause we are going to climb that with the antecedent.)
My blue tennis shoes, which used to be my mom's, were under the bed. (Antecedent = shoes. Which is a pronoun replacing shoes in the dependent clause shoes used to be my mom's and relating it to the subject of the independent clause.)
Daniel, who was late again today, sits next to me in English. (Antecedent = Daniel, Who = Daniel, so the dependent clause means Daniel was late again today.  Who is replacing Daniel in the second clause and relating it to the subject of the independent clause.)

The relative pronoun has a grammatical function in the sentence.

EXAMPLE
There is the mountain that we are going to climb. (That is the direct object of the infinitive to climb.)
My blue tennis shoes, which used to be my mom's, were under the bed. (Which is the subject of the verb used.)
Daniel, who was late again today, sits next to me in English. (Who is the subject of the dependent clause.)

Hint:
When choosing between who and whom, consider how the pronoun is used in the dependent clause, not the independent clause.

EXAMPLE
These are the students who are going.  (Who is the subject of the dependent clause.) These are the students.  Who are going. (They are going.)
Those are the students for whom I bought the tickets. (Whom is the object of the preposition for.) Those are the students. I bought the tickets for whom. (I bought the tickets for them.)

With understood pronouns
Sometimes the relative pronoun is understood and not written in the sentence.

EXAMPLE
Have you seen the book I lost? Have you seen the book [that] I lost?
The teacher I had in fifth grade really inspired me. The teacher [whom] I had in fifth grade really inspired me.

With prepositions - If the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition and is left out, the preposition has no choice but to dangle. In informal, spoken English, this is fine. It is also fine in spoken English to end the clause with the preposition. However, in formal English it is better to put the preposition before the pronoun. Note that the preposition is part of the dependent clause.

EXAMPLE
This movie was the sequel we had been waiting for. (Informal) This movie was the sequel, which we had been waiting for. (Informal) This movie was the sequel for which we had been waiting. (Formal)
Do you know the actor Shelly is talking about? (Informal) Do you know the actor that Shelly is talking about? (Informal) Do you know the actor about whom Shelly is talking? (Formal) (Note that that becomes whom or which.)

With relative adverbs
Adjective clauses can also start with the relative adverbs where, when, and why. They connect the dependent clause to a noun in the sentence. The relative adverb modifies the verb in the dependent clause.

EXAMPLE
That is the bench where you and I were supposed to meet.
Six o'clock was the time when we were supposed to be there.
That is the reason why I couldn't meet you.

Restrictive and Non restrictive Clauses
Restrictive Adjective Clause
Definition: An adjective clause is restrictive (also called essential) if it narrows down the word it modifies. It tells which one of the noun you are writing about. A restrictive adjective clause is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

EXAMPLE
The players who are wearing the red uniforms are winning the game. If we take out the clause, we won't know which players are winning the game. It's a restrictive or essential clause.

Non Restrictive Adjective Clauses
Definition: An adjective clause is nonrestrictive (also called nonessential) if we know exactly who is being written about without it. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is simply adding extra information. Nonrestrictive adjective clauses need commas around them.

EXAMPLE
Those girls, who have been friends for years, are all going to the same college. Without the clause, we still know that those girls are going to the same college. The clause is nonrestrictive.

A proper noun is usually followed by a nonrestrictive clause.

EXAMPLE
Amanda, who is my best friend, is on the honor roll again. Without the clause, we know that it is Amanda who is on the honor roll.

That versus Which
The relative pronoun that always begins a restrictive clause.  That can be used to replace who, whom, or which in restrictive clauses, but many teachers prefer students to use that only with non-human antecedents.

EXAMPLE
The oranges that you need for this recipe are on the table.
The workers who built this bridge did a good job.

The relative pronoun which generally begins a nonrestrictive clause. It can begin a restrictive clause, but most style manuals prefer writers use it only for nonrestrictive clauses.

EXAMPLE
The oranges, which have been sitting on the table for a week, are starting to look brown.

Adverb Clauses
Definition: An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. An adverb clause tells when, where, how, why, to what extent, or under what conditions something happened.

EXAMPLE
We will not have school today because it snowed last night.
Until it stops raining, we will stay inside.
When your father gets here, we will go.

An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction.

Some common (but not all) subordinating conjunctions
after although as as if as far as as long as as soon as as though because before even if	even though how if in order that once provided (that) rather than since so long as so (that) than	that though unless until when whenever where wherever whether while why

EXAMPLE
We will not have school today because it snowed last night.
Until it stops raining, we will stay inside.
When your father gets here, we will go.

Commas with adverb clauses
When an adverb clause is at the beginning of the sentence, it is an introductory clause and needs a comma separating it from the independent clause. If the adverb clause comes after the independent clause, the conjunction is enough to hold the two clauses together.

EXAMPLE
We will not have school today because it snowed last night.
Because it snowed last night, we will not have school today.

Locating adverb clauses - Adverb clauses modifying verbs can move around the sentence.

EXAMPLE
I missed the bus because my alarm didn't go off. Because my alarm didn't go off, I missed the bus. (The dependent clause because my alarm didn't go off modifies the verb missed. The dependent clause is adverbial because it tells why you missed the bus.)
Whenever it rains, my little sister loves to jump in the puddles. My little sister loves to jump in the puddles whenever it rains. (The dependent clause whenever it rains modifies the verb loves. The dependent clause is adverbial because it tells when your little sister jumps in the puddles.)

Adverb clauses modifying adjectives or adverbs must come after the word modified.

EXAMPLE
Playing football is dangerous if you don't have the right equipment.
We walked to class quickly as if we were going to be late.

Elliptical adverb clauses have missing words that are understood.

EXAMPLE
When finished this building will be the tallest in the city.
When [it is] finished this building will be the tallest in the city.

Noun Clauses
Definition: A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. It can be used as the subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, subject complement, or appositive.

Subject:	What I had forgotten was that I had a test today.
Direct object:	You must choose which flavor of ice cream you want.
Indirect object:	I will tell whoever will listen my frightening story.
Object of a preposition:	Josie is not interested in whatever Kyle says.
Subject complement:	Michael's excuse was that he had forgotten to set his alarm.
Appositive:	Appositive: It seems to bother the teacher that all the students are being too quiet. (That the students are being too quiet seems to bother the teacher. Note that the appositive renames It, but does not follow immediately like other appositives.)

It can also be used as an adverbial noun (a.k.a. an adverbial objective or adjective complement), which is a noun that acts like an adverb modifying a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

EXAMPLE
I'm afraid that we don't carry that ice cream flavor any longer. (The dependent clause modifies the predicate adjective afraid.)

Noun clauses often begin with pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, or other words. The introductory word generally has a grammatical function in the sentence.

Relative pronouns:	that, which, who, whom, whose, what
Indefinite relative pronouns:	whoever, whomever, whatever, whichever, whether, if
Interrogative pronoun:	who
Interrogative adjective:	what
Interrogative adverb:	how
Subordinating conjunctions:	how, if, when, whenever, where, whether, why

Hint:
Whoever/Whomever - the correct choice in a formal writing is whichever pronoun is correct in the subordinate sentence. In informal speech, using the correct pronoun often sounds pretentious.

EXAMPLE
Whoever is responsible for this mess needs to clean it up. (Whoever is the subject of the verb is.)
Whomever you hit accidentally deserves an apology. (Whomever is the direct object of the verb hit.)

Sometimes the introductory word is understood.

EXAMPLE
Daria told me she was going to be late.
Daria told me (that) she was going to be late.

Some noun clauses, especially those used as subjects, begin with that, which seems to serve no function. It makes sense if you include the fact or the idea before it. Some modern English constructions that seem to make no sense are the result of our dropping words.

EXAMPLE
That we were late to class really upset the teacher.
The fact that we were late to class really upset the teacher.

Question Clauses
In a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question, the dependent clause is written as a declarative.

EXAMPLE
Where is your father? Do you know where your father is? Not: Do you know where is your father?
When did you assign that? We all asked when you assigned that. Not: We all asked when did you assign that.  (Unless the noun clause is in quotation marks.)

Classifying Dependent Clauses
To classify a dependent clause, you need to determine how the dependent clause relates to the independent clause. If it is replacing a noun, it is a noun clause. Try replacing it with the indefinite pronouns something or someone.

1) I know that you were late yesterday.  (I know something.)

2) I bought these cards for whenever I might need some extras.  (I bought these cards for something.)

If it is modifying a noun, it is an adjective clause. An adjective clause tells which one or what kind.

EXAMPLE
The birds that are singing so loudly are monk parakeets.

If it is modifying a verb, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb clause. An adverb clause modifying a verb tells when, where, how, why, to what extent, or under what conditions. Adverb clauses can be moved around in the sentence.

EXAMPLE
Before you eat that brownie, you should read the ingredients. You should read the ingredients before you eat that brownie.
The team was relieved that the referee's call went their way. In the library, we worked quietly so we wouldn't disturb anyone.

Kinds of Sentences/ Sentence Purposes
Declarative Sentences
Definition: Declarative sentences (also called assertive sentences) give information. They may state a fact or an opinion. Declarative sentences end with periods.

EXAMPLE
I like riding my bicycle around the park.
My essay is better than yours.

Declarative sentences can be positive (affirmative) or negative.

EXAMPLE
The sun is shining. (Positive)
It is not raining. (Negative)

Interrogative Sentences
Definition: Interrogative sentences ask a question. Interrogative sentences end with question marks.

In English, interrogative questions often begin with interrogative words like who, when, where, why, what, and how.

EXAMPLE
Why are you late?
What time is it?
Where is the library?

Interrogative sentences without question words are generally formed by moving the helping verb before the subject.

EXAMPLE
Do you have any more cough drops?

A question fragment can be added onto the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. This fragment is called a tag/tail question.

EXAMPLE
You have answered all the questions on this test, haven't you? (After a declarative sentence)
Close the window, will you? (After an imperative sentence)

A question fragment can also be used by itself, either before or after a sentence.

EXAMPLE
What? You lost your wallet?
You are late. Why?

Hint:

An indirect question is a declarative sentence that tells that information was asked. It is not asking the question. Indirect questions end with periods.

EXAMPLE
The driver asked if we knew which way to turn.
We wondered if it was going to rain.

Imperative Sentences
Definition: Imperative sentences give a command, a request, advice, a suggestion, a warning, or a wish. They can be followed by a period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark.

EXAMPLE
Be quiet. (a command)
Please have a seat. (a request)
Watch out! (a command)
Enjoy yourselves. (a wish)

The simple subject of an imperative sentence is usually the understood you.

EXAMPLE
Turn to page 37.
(You) turn to page 37.

Hint:
If a person's name is included in an imperative sentence, it is a direct address, not the subject.

EXAMPLE
Wayne, turn to page 37.
Wayne, (you) turn to page 37.

Imperative sentences may be written like a question, but they aren't asking anything.

EXAMPLE
Will you please mind your manners?

Exclamatory Sentences
Definition: Exclamatory sentences exclaim or show great emotion. Exclamatory sentences end with exclamation marks. Use exclamation marks only when necessary. It's easy to overuse them.

EXAMPLE
Wow! That magic trick was amazing!Wow!

Exclamatory sentences can begin with question words.

EXAMPLE
What wonderful weather we are having today!
How lovely to see you!

Simple and Compound Sentences
Simple Sentence
Definition: A simple sentence has one independent clause.

EXAMPLE
The radio is blaring.
Your sneaker is under the couch.

A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a compound predicate.

EXAMPLE
The walrus and the sea lion live both on land and in the water.
The trains pass our street and stop at the station a mile away.

Compound Sentence
Definition: A compound sentence is made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating or correlative conjunction. The conjunction is not included when deciding if the clauses are independent.

EXAMPLE
The sunbathers relaxed on the sand, and the surfers paddled out to sea.	The sunbathers relaxed on the sand. (independent) + The surfers paddled out to sea. (independent) = compound sentence
I ate breakfast, but my brother did not.	I ate breakfast. (independent) + My brother did not. (independent) = compound sentence

The clauses in a compound sentence are joined together in three different ways: a comma with a coordinating conjunction; a semicolon; or a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb, which is followed by a comma.

EXAMPLE
The teacher gave the assignments, and the students wrote them down. The teacher gave the assignments; the students wrote them down.
The accident had been cleared, but the traffic was still stopped. The accident had been cleared; however, the traffic was still stopped.

Note:
As writers become more proficient, they are allowed to omit the comma between two short independent clauses in a compound sentence. You will sometimes notice that in books you read.

EXAMPLE
The hero saved the princess and then he went home.

Complex and Compound Complex Sentences
Complex Sentence
Definition: A complex sentence is made up of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

EXAMPLE
Before we arrived at school, we met up at the coffee house across the street.	We met up at the coffee house across the street [independent] + before we arrived at school (dependent) = complex sentence (Before we arrived at school),[we met up at the coffee house across the street.]
Clara, who has an incredible voice, was asked to sing the school song.	Clara was asked to sing the school song [independent] + who has an incredible voice (dependent) = complex sentence [Clara, (who has an incredible voice), was asked to sing the school song.]
The book that I had found disappeared after Julia returned it to me.	The book disappeared [independent] + I had found that (dependent) + after Julia returned it to me (dependent) = complex sentence [The book (that I had found) disappeared] (after Julia returned it to me.)

Compound-Complex Sentence
Definition: A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

EXAMPLE
My father and I went to the movie that I had been wanting to see, and then we went to the restaurant near the theatre.	My father and I went to the movie [independent] + then we went to the restaurant near the theater [independent] + I had been wanting to see that (dependent) = compound-complex sentence [My father and I went to the movie] (that I had been wanting to see), and [then we went to the restaurant near the theater.]
Before they were friends, Louisa and Julie knew Aimee, but they didn't realize that they knew her until they met.	Before they were friends (dependent) + Louisa and Julie knew Aimee [independent] + They didn't realize [independent] + that they knew her (dependent) + until they met (dependent) = compound-complex sentence [(Before they were friends), Louisa and Julie knew Aimee], but [they didn't realize (that they knew her) (until they met).]

Classifying Sentences
Classifying sentences is easiest if you mark the parts and then see what you have. Underline independent clauses once. Underline dependent clauses twice.

1 independent = Simple	2 independent = Compound
1 independent and 1(or more) dependent = Complex	2(or more) independent and 1(or more) dependent = Compound-Complex

EXAMPLE
We might go to New Orleans on our Christmas vacation or to New York next spring. (1 independent = simple)
Our families have been friends forever, but we haven't seen each other in years. (2 independent = compound)
When we get to your aunt's house, you must remember to thank her for the presents that she sent you. (1 independent + 2 dependent = complex)
Before we go to the movie, which you have been waiting weeks to see, we need to find a babysitter for your little sister, who is too young to see it. (1 independent + 3 dependent = complex)
The Egyptians who built the pyramids were amazing architects, but the Romans who built many years later were even better because they were able to build arches, which the Egyptians hadn't figured out. (2 independent + 4 dependent = compound-complex)